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• Journal List
• J Sports Sci Med
• v.nine(4); 2010 Dec
• PMC3761807

J Sports Sci Med. 2010 Dec; 9(four): 528–537.

Published online 2010 December 1.

The Social-Psychological Outcomes of Martial Arts Practise Among Youth: A Review

Received 2010 May xx; Accepted 2010 Aug half-dozen.

Abstruse

Martial arts involvement amidst the youth has been described in controversial terms. Studies regarding the effects of martial arts practice on youth bear witness contrasting images. While some refer to enhanced personal and social opportunities for those that participate, others warn against increased levels of aggressiveness and hating behavior among its participants. The aim of the present review is to provide, firstly, an overview of the major findings of studies apropos the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts do. Secondly, the limitations of those studies are discussed. From more than 350 papers, nerveless during a two-year lasting literature study, 27 papers met all criteria to be included in this study. This review revealed that even though a considerable amount of inquiry on social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise has been conducted over the years, to date, it has not brought clarity in the existing duality regarding the possible furnishings of martial arts interest. It is proposed that a improve understanding can be provided if specific influential factors are taken into account in hereafter research (i.e., participants' characteristics, blazon of guidance, social context and structural qualities of the sport).

Key points

• Many common beliefs exist about the positive and negative outcomes of martial arts practice.

• Studies regarding the effects of martial arts practise on youth testify contrasting images.

• Several influential factors have to be taken into account when examining the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts exercise.

Central words: Martial arts, youth, personality traits.

Introduction

Martial arts involvement in general can be described in controversial terms. Ordinarily held perceptions on the value of interest in martial arts are mixed. Equally indicated by some, these mutual beliefs with regard to martial arts are often largely based on perceptions obtained through the media and amusement industry (Smith, 1999). It has been pointed out that pop media have created a distorted image of martial arts for (commercial) entertainment purposes (Fuller, 1988; Grady, 1998; Stickney, 2005).

The duality in the perception regarding the effects of martial arts is peradventure fifty-fifty more than apparent when information technology involves youth. On the one side, martial arts involvement is believed to provide positive learning opportunities for youth in general, as well as with regard to specific target groups. For case, a study among member countries of the European Concrete Education Association (EUPEA) indicated that in the majority of countries, martial arts are introduced during physical education classes in secondary schools, considering it is believed that martial arts involvement tin can provide positive educational opportunities to pupils (Theeboom and De Knop, 1999). Too, specific initiatives have been fix in several countries in which educators and welfare workers make employ of martial arts in their work with socially deprived youth (Abrahams, 2004; Bosch, 2008; Theeboom et al., 2008; Zivin et al., 2001). However on the other side, the relationship betwixt (some) martial arts and adolescents has been regarded by others as problematic due to an assumed relationship with negative socialization processes. Consider the sport of boxing equally an instance. Several authors accept pleaded for a ban of this sport for youth nether the historic period of 16 years on medical, philosophical and ethical grounds (e.g., American Academy of Pediatrics, 1997; Pearn, 1998). Pearn, 1998, for example, proposed that "… there is no identify in gimmicky club for a youth sport which has, every bit its primary goal, the infliction of astute brain impairment on an opponent" (p. 311). This perspective becomes fifty-fifty more than credible in calorie-free of the so-called "desportization "inside the martial arts (Bottenburg and Heilbron, 2006), equally immature participants seem to become increasingly involved in harder martial arts (e.g., Thai boxing, mixed martial arts). This trend is clearly visible in Thailand, where children aged betwixt five and nine accept part in Thai battle and starting professional fights at around 12 to fourteen years quondam (David, 2005).

Some researchers have also provided evidence for the negative furnishings of martial arts interest among adolescents. For case, a Norwegian study concluded that participating in power sports such as weightlifting, wrestling and oriental martial arts (karate, judo, and taekwondo) leads to an increase in antisocial behavior in youth (Endresen and Olweus, 2005). These results led to a great deal of controversy in a number of countries leading into violent discussions in various media and on the internet regarding the alleged effects of the practise of martial arts on the young participant, ranging from very positive to very negative. However, some researchers made comments on the Norwegian study's methodology (Sleijfer, 2005; Theeboom et al., 2008). For instance, doubts take been raised nigh the validity of the self-composed questionnaire and an absenteeism of specifying which type of guidance used within the selected power sports. It has also been argued that it is difficult to make full general statements using the show from this written report as a great variety of sports was selected in this study (e.1000., weightlifting compared to martial arts).

The information presented above indicates that uncertainties exist regarding social- psychological outcomes of martial arts practise on immature participants. It is therefore worthwhile to review findings of the major studies dealing with this topic.

Popularity of martial arts

Martial arts (east.yard., judo, karate, taekwondo, kickboxing) participation has universal appeal. For case, in French republic, the netherlands, Canada, Finland, Australia and Belgium martial arts are on a list of the 10 about practiced sports among children and adolescents (Australian Agency of Statistics, 2009; Ministère de la jeunesse des sports et de la vie associative, 2005; Nederlandse Hartstichting and NOC*NSF, 2007; Tammelin et al., 2003; Warren, 2008; Wolt et al., 2007). Martial arts have likewise been ranked among the ten nearly practiced sports in a order context (Bottenburg et al., 2005; Ministère de la jeunesse des sports et de la vie associative, 2002).

The popularity of martial arts has helped contribute to a growing interest in martial arts enquiry over the years, which tin can be illustrated through a number of ways. Firstly, in that location are indications that in recent years more papers on martial arts are presented at sports scientific congresses. For example, Distaso and his colleagues (2009) examined the number of oral and affiche presentations on martial arts at the almanac briefing of the European College of Sport Science (ECSS) and noticed a pregnant growth between 1999 and 2008.

Secondly, in recent years an increased number of scientific meetings with regard to martial arts take been organized. Adjacent to conferences on martial arts in general (due east.g., "Scientific Congress on Martial Arts and Gainsay Sports"; "World Congress on Gainsay Sports and Martial Arts", "International Scientific Briefing of Experts - Researchers on Martial Arts and Humanists"), as well scientific gatherings with regard to ane particular martial arts fashion are being organized (due east.g., "International Scientific discipline of Judo Symposium"; "International Congress on Wrestling and Traditional Games"; "International Symposium on Science and Taekwondo"; "International Symposium of Traditional Karate, Budo Arts and Combat Sports").

Thirdly, it is interesting to note that in recent years the number of scientific publications regarding martial arts has increased besides. For example, in that location are currently a number of specific international journals reporting on martial arts research (e.yard., "Journal of Asian Martial Arts", "Archives of Budo", "Journal of Chinese Martial Studies", "IDO Movement for Culture", "Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences", "Classical Fighting Arts"). In addition, the Periodical of Sport Science and Medicine has published a number of special editions on martial arts.

Despite the increased attention amid scientists for martial arts studies, until now only a limited number of literature reviews accept been published regarding this enquiry (e.m., Cox, 1993; Fuller, 1988; Gutiérrez García and Pérez Gutiérrez, 2009; Henning, 1999; Pieter, 1994). These reviews covered a wide range of scientific disciplines (eastward.chiliad., biomechanics, psychology, history, physiology, sociology, teaching, epidemiology of injuries) and paucities in sure domains accept been reported. For example, Pieter, 1994 concluded that pedagogical research in martial arts was sorely lacking and Fuller, 1988 claimed that due to their negative public image, martial arts have been largely neglected every bit a focus of psychological inquiry. As these reviews are more than 15 years quondam, it is interesting to larn about more than recent martial arts research. Among other things, it would be worthwhile to specifically focus on young martial artists, as several studies have reported an increased percent of adolescents involved in martial arts. For example, in the Netherlands it was found that approximately 55% of those practicing a martial fine art in a order setting, was youth (Breedveld et al., 2008) and in Finland the percentage of youth membership in martial arts clubs fluctuated between 64% and 86% (Tammelin et al., 2003).

Methods

Considering controversial feelings regarding the effects of martial arts practise on young people, it is relevant to gain more than insight in the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts involvement among youth past reviewing the existing research on this topic. Literature was collected over a 2-year period. Apart from a number of secondary sources (e.g., research reviews), literature data were primarily nerveless through calculator and manual searches of master sources (east.thou., journal manufactures, theses and dissertations) in the areas of sport folklore, psychology, pedagogy and philosophy.

For the computer search, online databases (east.m., SportDiscus, ERIC, Academic Search Elite) were combed pairing primary keywords, such as martial arts, judo, aikido, kicking-/Thai boxing, boxing, taekwondo, karate, children, youth, adolescents, outcomes, effects, motivation, teaching fashion, teaching approach, participation, motives and assailment. In addition, the reference list of the studies obtained, were examined for additional potentially relevant manufactures not previously located. The literature search resulted in a database of 380 published every bit well as unpublished papers in full, collected from 107 dissimilar journals, of which 209 papers coming from 79 different journals, specifically focused on martial arts.

To be included in the review conducted as role of the nowadays study, a study had to see seven criteria. Firstly, only those studies measuring social-psychological outcomes of practicing a martial art are included. For example, this means that studies looking at the therapeutic values of martial arts are not discussed in this review (for such a review, run across Burke et al., 2007). Secondly, studies in which martial arts were incorporated as part of a larger intervention program, were excluded from this review (eastward.chiliad. Glanz, 1994; Smith et al., 1999; Twemlow et al., 2008) as limited bear witness could exist provided that measured outcomes were specifically attributed to martial arts practise. Thirdly, studies evaluating self-defense programs were also excluded as Brecklin, 2008 recently reviewed the majority of these studies. Fourthly, when the used methodology was not presented clearly or when a study had many limitations (as concluded by the authors), they were omitted from this review (e.g., Delva-Tauiliili, 1995; Strayhorn and Strayhorn, 2009). Fifthly, as only few studies focused on specific target groups, such as persons with disabilities (e.g., Conant et al., 2008; Martin, 2002) or made use of a qualitative research methodology (e.thou., interviews) (Konzak and Klavora, 1980; Theeboom et al., 2008; 2009), none of this inquiry was included in this review every bit no meaningful comparison would be possible. Sixthly, the focus is on studies conducted from the mid '90s onwards, equally the older ones were mostly included in the previous reviews (such as Cox, 1993; Fuller, 1988; Pieter, 1994). Nonetheless, to enable a comparison with more recent inquiry, major findings of these older studies were included too. Seventhly (and finally), the review covers but research that has been published in English, Dutch or French. Studies written in another linguistic communication were not discussed in the review (e.g., Matsumoto et al., 2006; Matsumoto and Konno, 2005). The final selection resulted in 27 studies that volition exist reviewed below (12 studies before and 15 studies subsequently the mid '90s).

The results of this literature study will exist described in the present review, which consists of two parts. In the first part, studies reporting the possible effects of martial arts do on participants will be discussed. Nonetheless, the majority of these studies cannot determine to what extent the observed furnishings tin can be attributed to the practise of a martial art since several methodological and conceptual limitations can be noticed. The 2d part of this review will focus specifically on these restrictions. Finally, a conclusion is presented and recommendations are provided for further investigation.

Social-psychological outcomes of martial arts exercise

Firstly, a number of trends can be noticed with regard to themes, groups of participants and methodologies in martial arts research. Studies regarding social- psychological effects of martial arts practise date back to the late 60's and the early 70's (due east.yard., Kroll and Carlson, 1967; Pyecha, 1970). These earlier studies focused on personal characteristics of martial artists, how these characteristics determined preferences for specific types of martial arts and the extent in which they changed as a result of martial arts interest. Since then, more than researchers have become interested in the outcomes of martial arts exercise. Interestingly, for a number of reasons, a turning bespeak in martial arts inquiry can be detected effectually the mid '90s. For instance firstly, while earlier studies focused on martial arts involvement in general, in more than contempo years attention shifted to outcomes of martial arts practise amongst children and adolescents. More than than sixty% of more recent papers and reports that were analyzed, addressed youth, whereas less than xx% of the studies conducted earlier the mid '90s examined this issue. Secondly, a shift tin can be noticed regarding the type of martial arts under written report. Previously, the bulk of studies focused on traditional martial arts (due east.grand., judo, karate, taekwondo), while in more than contempo years a growing interest for (harder) Western martial arts can be noted (east.chiliad., boxing, mixed martial arts). Thirdly, an evolution in the used methodology tin be noticed likewise. While until the mid '90s, nigh studies made apply of cross-sectional designs (viz, 92% of the older studies included in this review), in later years more longitudinal studies have been fix (viz, 40% of the studies conducted after the mid '90s). And fourthly, throughout the years, the blazon of social-psychological outcomes nether written report changed. While nigh of the earlier studies primarily looked at the influence of martial arts practise on a multifariousness of personality traits of practitioners (viz, 58% of the studies conducted before the mid '90s), in recent years the accent is more than on the relationship between martial artists and aggression (viz, 61% of all studies that were analyzed).

In the following department an overview is presented of empirical studies with regard to social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practice, in which, among other things, results and used methodology volition be examined more than closely.

Studies examining dissimilar personality traits, such equally self-confidence, self-assurance, feet level, and self-regulation are discussed beginning (Tabular array 1). Afterwards, research regarding the relation between martial arts practise and aggressive beliefs is looked at because of its increased attention by researchers in recent years (Table 2).

Table ane

Overview of selected studies on martial arts and personality aits.

Year	Author	Sample size	Target group*	Methodology	Martial fine art	Measured effect	Positive or negative outcome amongst MA†
1978	Duthie et al.	152	General	Cross-sectional (level of experience)	Karate, other martial arts (not specified)	Cocky-conviction, say-so, autonomy, achievement, …	Positive among advanced MA
1980	Konzak & Klavora	84	General	Cross-sectional (level of experience)	Karate	Full general development (personality factors and concrete well-being)	Positive among advanced MA
1986	Richman & Rehberg	lx	General	Cross-exclusive (level of experience + functioning)	Karate	Cocky-esteem	Positive among advanced and successful MA‡
1986	Trulson	34	Youth	Longitudinal (type of guidance)	Taekwondo	Anxiety, cocky-esteem and social craftsmanship	Positive among traditional MA
1989	McGowan & Miller	107	General	Cross-exclusive (level of functioning)	Karate	Angry	Positive among less successful MA‡
1990	Layton	93	General	Cantankerous-exclusive (level of experience)	Karate	Trait and state anxiety	Positive amongst advanced MA
1993	Kurian et al.	30	Full general	Cross-sectional (level of experience)	Taekwondo	Anxiety and independence	Positive among avant-garde MA
1994	Kurian et al.	72	Youth	Cantankerous-sectional (level of experience)	Taekwondo	Self-reliance and enthusiastic optimism	Positive amongst advanced MA
2003	Najafi	118	Full general	Cross-sectional (type of guidance)	Karate	Humility and overall levels of hope	Positive among traditional MA
2004	Lakes & Hoyt	193	Youth	Longitudinal(school-linked plan)	Taekwondo, command	Cerebral and affective self-regulation, prosocial behavior, classroom conduct, performance on a mental math test	Positive over time among MA
2007	Kuan & Roy	40	General	Cross-sectional (level of operation)	Wushu	Self-confidence and energy control	Positive among successful MA‡
2007	Wargo et al.	40	General	Cantankerous-sectional (level of experience)	Taekwondo, karate	Self-esteem	Neither positive nor negative
2009	Steyn & Roux	72	Youth	Cross-exclusive (comparison different groups)	Taekwondo,hockey,non-sport group	Personal growth and self-credence	Positive amidst MA

Table 2

Overview of selected studies on martial arts and assailment.

Yr	Writer	Sample size	Target grouping*	Methodology	Martial art	Measured effect	Positive or negative effect amid MA†
1980	Rothpearl	152	General	Cross-exclusive (level of experience)	Karate	Hostility	Positive among advanced MA
1981	Nosanchuk	41	General	Cross-sectional (level of experience)	Karate	Aggressive fantasy	Positive among advanced MA
1990	Daniels & Thornton	80	Full general	Cantankerous-sectional (level of experience)+ (comparing different martial arts)	Karate, ju jitsu, badminton, rugby, control	Hostility	Positive among advanced MA
1991	Skelton et al.	68	Youth	Cross-sectional (level of experience)	Taekwondo	Aggressiveness	Positive among advanced MA
1992	Daniels & Thornton	79	General	Cross-sectional (level of experience)	Karate, ju jitsu, badminton, rugby	Hostility	Positive amongst advanced MA
1994	Edelman	15	Youth	Longitudinal (school-linked program)	Aikido	Hostility and aggressiveness	Positive over fourth dimension among MA
1999	Lamarre & Nosanchuk	51	Full general	Cantankerous-exclusive (level of experience)	Judo	Aggressiveness	Positive among advanced MA
2001	Björkqvist & Varhama	319	Full general	Cross-sectional (comparison different martial arts)	Karate, wrestling and battle, non-contact sports, no sports	Attitudes towards trigger-happy conflict resolution	Positive among male, negative amongst female person karateka
2001	Zivin et al.	60	Youth	Longitudinal (school-linked program)	Kempo	Hostility and aggressiveness	Positive over time amongst MA
2001	Reynes & Lorant	150	Youth	Cross-exclusive (comparison different martial arts)	Judo, karate, control	Aggressiveness	No difference compared to control (judo more than anger than control)
2002	Reynes & Lorant (a)	8	Youth	Longitudinal	Judo, command	Aggressiveness	Negative compared to control group
2002	Reynes & Lorant (b)	9	Youth	Longitudinal	Karate, control	Aggressiveness	No effect compared to control, positive upshot compared to judoka
2004	Reynes & Lorant	43	Youth	Longitudinal (comparison dissimilar martial arts)	Judo, karate	Aggressiveness	No effect amidst karate, negative among judo
2005	Endresen & Olweus	477	Youth	Longitudinal	Boxing, weightlifting, wrestling, oriental martial arts, non-participants	Tearing and antisocial behavior	Negative amidst MA
2007	Wargo et al.	40	General	Cross-sectional (level of experience)	Taekwondo,karate	Aggressiveness	Neither positive nor negative
2009	Steyn & Roux	72	Youth	Cross-sectional (comparing dissimilar groups)	Taekwondo, hockey, not-participants	Verbal aggression and hostility	Positive among MA

Personality traits

Most research looking at personality profiles of martial artists used a cross-sectional design. A number of these studies take compared personality traits according to the performance level of martial artists (due east.1000., winning or losing a competition, earning a trophy or a medal) (e.thou., McGowan and Miller, 1989; Richman and Rehberg, 1986). In an earlier study, Richman and Rehberg, 1986 showed that the level of operation had a positive bear upon on personality traits of participants (e.g., higher self-esteem). Around the same period, McGowan and Miller, 1989 reported that successful competitors showed more anger than less successful ones. However, in this study acrimony was used in a positive way, namely the free energy needed to win a karate competition. Information technology is not possible to infer from these findings that competitors remain feeling aroused. More recent studies (e.thou., Kuan and Roy, 2007) made use of a similar research methodology and revealed positive findings. Kuan and Roy, 2007 used the "Psychological Functioning Inventory "(PPI) to examine differences in self-confidence and negative energy control amidst wushu athletes (medallist compared to non-medallist). Results revealed that medallists scored significantly higher on cocky-confidence and negative energy control than non-medallists. Consequently, it was also concluded that successful athletes reported more than positive outcomes on personality traits than less successful athletes.

Instead of dividing the sample according to level of functioning, a number of researchers examined differences in personality traits of martial artists between dissimilar pedagogy styles (i.east., traditional versus modernistic grooming methods). While a traditional approach was defined every bit focusing on meditative aspects, stressing self-control, disharmonize avoidance, respect for others, kata training, and the report of philosophy, modern training was described as emphasizing sport and competitive aspects, as well as focusing teaching to physical aspects only (Donohue and Taylor, 1994; Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989).

In an before study, Trulson, 1986 suggested that traditional martial arts practice has a positive influence on personality traits of participants, as opposed to training in mod martial arts. More recently, Najafi, 2003 also divided his sample as a role of instruction styles and came to similar conclusions. His findings revealed that practitioners of traditional martial arts emphasize more humility and written report more overall levels of hope compared to those involved in modern martial arts. In this study, hope was defined as "…the motivation to attain the harsh task "(p. 25).

The majority of studies that employ a cantankerous-exclusive design to examine personality profiles of martial artists carve up samples as a function of level of experience in a specific martial art (e.k., belt color or length of martial arts interest). Studies conducted before the mid '90s indicated clear similarities in their conclusions, in which length of preparation was found to have a positive impact on personality traits of martial artists (due east.g., Duthie et al., 1978; Konzak and Klavora, 1980; Kurian et al., 1993; Layton, 1990; Richman and Rehberg, 1986). Notwithstanding, a number of studies conducted in more recent years resulted in less consistent findings. For instance, in Wargo et al. 's study (2007) black and yellow belt taekwondo-in were asked to fill out the "Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory ii "(MMPI-ii). No evidence for improved self-esteem with rank was constitute. Furthermore, the authors suggested that the participants included in their report had no more self-esteem issues than the general population.

A number of more than recent studies, using a similar research methodology, have focused on the influence of martial arts on personality profiles among adolescents. For instance, Steyn and Roux, 2009 compared the psychological well-beingness of taekwondo-in, hockey players and a non-sport group. Adolescents betwixt the ages of xv to 18 years were asked to administrate the "Psychological Well-being Questionnaire". Results indicated that the personal growth and self-credence scores of taekwondo- in were significantly higher than those of the hockey players and the not-sport group. Another written report, conducted by Kurian et al., 1994, found similar results among taekwondo participants. They used the "Children'south Personality Questionnaire "and found that longer times in taekwondo training were associated with more self-reliance and enthusiastic optimism. Lakes and Hoyt, 2004 using a longitudinal inquiry blueprint to measure the touch of schoolhouse-based taekwondo training on self-regulatory abilities constitute that after a 3-month intervention, participants of taekwondo showed greater improvements than a command group in areas of cerebral and affective self-regulation, prosocial behavior, classroom behave and operation on a mental math examination.

In general, research conducted after the mid '90s and focusing on youth showed that martial arts exercise has positive furnishings on the personality profiles of adolescents, which clearly confirms findings of before studies.

Assailment

Although most of the earlier studies focused on personality traits of martial artists in general, some authors specifically looked at the relationship between martial arts and ambitious beliefs (Daniels and Thornton, 1990; 1992; Nosanchuk, 1981; Rothpearl, 1980; Skelton et al., 1991). In full general, it was ended that longer training was associated with lower levels of aggressiveness.

Opposite to before inquiry, merely a few of the more recent studies made utilise of a cantankerous-sectional design. For instance, Lamarre and Nosanchuk, 1999 used the "Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Exam "and responses to hostile or frustrating situations to examine the aggressiveness amongst judoka. Their results revealed that aggressiveness decreased across training, as well as across age, with gender having no effect. Consequently, findings were consequent with those of the previous studies. Yet, Wargo et al., 2007 failed to support previous findings. In their study the "Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2 "(MMPI-2) was used to assess the personalities of yellow and black belt taekwondo-in and karateka. It was reported that participants were no more than likely to view ambiguous situations as warranting retaliation compared to the general population.

Instead of dividing the sample equally a role of level of feel, Björkqvist and Varhama, 2001 made a comparison betwixt unlike types of martial arts. Attitudes towards violent conflict resolution were examined amongst female and male person practitioners of different styles of martial arts (karateka compared to wrestlers and boxers), practitioners of non-contact sports and controls who did not practice any sport. Results indicated that martial arts practise had positive furnishings on male person, but negative furnishings on female participants when compared to participants in a command group.

As indicated earlier, in recent years more researchers have get interested in the relationship of martial arts do and aggressiveness amongst children and adolescents. Contrary to more general studies and those conducted in earlier years, a majority of the inquiry involving adolescents fabricated use of a longitudinal inquiry design with fourth dimension between pre- and post-testing ranging approximately from 2 months to ii years. It is as well interesting to note that several of these longitudinal studies have ready up an experimental design in which martial art instruction was provided to adolescents with no prior martial arts experience and were aimed at examining changes in aggressive behavior over the course of the program. In near cases, specific target groups were used, such as center or unproblematic school youth at risk (Edelman, 1994; Zivin et al., 2001). All these studies reported positive outcomes, with decreased post-test scores on hostility and aggression. While well-nigh of these studies made utilize of martial arts in general, only a few take investigated differences between specific styles of martial arts. For example, Reynes and Lorant (2001; 2002a; 2002b; 2004) compared changes in aggressiveness of children practicing either judo or karate. Later on a i- and 2-year practise period, they reported distinct opposite findings between the two martial arts, namely immature karateka did not differ from a control group, whereas young judoka were found to be more ambitious than both the control and the karate group. Also Endresen and Olweus, 2005 reported negative effects as a consequence of martial arts practise amid youth. As reported before, they conducted a longitudinal study in which they examined the relationship between participation in so-chosen "ability sports "and vehement and antisocial behavior among preadolescent and adolescent boys over a two-twelvemonth period. These power sports included battle, weightlifting, wrestling and oriental martial arts. Their findings showed that participation in these sports atomic number 82 to an increase in antisocial involvement outside the sports situation with no indications of selection effects. The authors suggested that these negative effects stemmed both from the practice of ability sports itself, as well as from the repeated contact with a "manlike "culture prevalent in the sporting clubs. As earlier indicated, Endresen and Olweus' report has been criticized by others.

Finally, only a few studies made use of a cross- sectional design to measure the aggressiveness amongst young martial artists. For case, Steyn and Roux, 2009 used the "Osculation and Perry Aggression Questionnaire "to examine the aggression levels of fifteen to 18 year former taekwondo-in compared to hockey players and a non-sport group of the same age category. Findings revealed that the verbal aggression and hostility scores of taekwondo participants were significantly lower than the other ii groups.

In conclusion, most studies investigating the human relationship between martial arts practise and aggressiveness revealed positive outcomes, in a full general population, also as specifically for adults or for adolescents. However, findings are not e'er consistent with i another, since some studies reported that martial arts would have no or even negative effects on the aggressiveness of participants.

Limitations

Examining effects of sports participation is complex as several factors (e.g., type of guidance, structural qualities of the sport, etc.) can be expected to have an influence. As a result, this kind of enquiry has several methodological and conceptual limitations, which will be discussed below.

Several studies, which fabricated employ of a cross-sectional design to compare personality traits of martial arts practitioners at dissimilar levels of feel, do non seem to control for cocky-selection furnishings (e.g., Kurian et al., 1993; Steyn and Roux, 2009; Wargo et al., 2007). It is likely that participants in those studies selected martial arts training because it was consequent with their personal tendencies. It is also possible that adolescents whose values and behavior were not in tune with those of the called martial fine art, would most probable decide to give up practise. Every bit indicated past several authors (e.g., Cox, 1993; Fuller, 1988), it is therefore better to conduct longitudinal studies. All the same, this kind of pattern also has its limitations. Among other things, information technology is fourth dimension-consuming and it remains difficult to command the period between the first and second measurement and to prevent the context from changing (e.g., drop- out, irresolute of the martial fine art instructor, etc.) (Gravetter and Forzano, 2009). For example, in the study of Reynes and Lorant, 2002a nearly one third of the total sample dropped-out during the one year of judo practise. Nosanchuk and Lamarre (2002) indicated in their comments on this study that those who persisted, may be more aggressive than those who dropped-out, which could be an explanation for the observed outcomes. It tin can also be noted that differences appear regarding the length of the intervention. While a number of studies accept used a one- or two-month period (Edelman, 1994: 12 weeks; Lakes and Hoyt, 2004: xvi weeks; Zivin et al., 2001: 10 weeks), others raised questions about these short-term furnishings. For example, Nosanchuk and Lamarre (2002) argued that more than one year of training would exist required to appraise any meaningful variations. Likewise other authors suggested that it takes several years of preparation to obtain positive outcomes (eastward.g., Konzak and Klavora, 1980; Layton, 1990). In addition, only a few researchers accept conducted a follow-up report to assess whether martial artists' changes in personality, psychological and behavioral characteristics are long-lasting (due east.one thousand., Zivin et al., 2001). It is also interesting to note that some researchers reported meaning effects, but used modest-sized samples, which may have resulted in low statistical power (due east.g., Edelman, 1994: due north = 15; Reynes and Lorant, 2002b: n = 9). Furthermore, many studies did non take gender differences into account. For instance, a number of studies simply investigated boys (e.g., Endresen and Olweus, 2005; Kurian et al., 1994; Reynes and Lorant, 2002a; 2002b; 2004; Zivin et al., 2001). Only Lakes and Hoyt, 2004 indicated that benefits received past girls may be manifested differently than those obtained by boys.

Moreover, a few studies made a comparison between dissimilar martial arts styles and revealed differences along the dissimilar styles (east.grand., Björkqvist and Varhama, 2001; Daniels and Thornton, 1990; Reynes and Lorant, 2004). This finding indicates that each martial art has its own qualities, which can lead to different outcomes. Nevertheless, in some studies the characteristics of specific martial arts were non taken into consideration. In these cases adolescents involved in dissimilar martial arts were pooled together into one group and compared with a not-participation group (due east.1000., Endresen and Olweus, 2005; Daniels and Thornton, 1992; Duthie et al., 1978; Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989; Wargo et al., 2007).

Finally, as indicated by Jones, MacKay and Peters (2006), it is not only important to take the kind of martial fine art into account, it is perhaps more than important to look at the role played by the instructor, which can create different styles inside ane martial fine art. The effect of the martial arts being taught can exist very dissimilar depending on who is educational activity. It can be noted, however, that many authors did not describe the blazon of guidance used within the selected martial arts (eastward.g., Daniels and Thornton, 1992; Endresen and Olweus, 2005; Steyn and Roux, 2009). The few studies that explicitly referred to the type of guidance (e.g., Najafi, 2003; Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989; Trulson, 1986) reported dissimilar outcomes according to the specific guidance arroyo that was used.

Conclusion

To date, many mutual beliefs with regard to the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practice exist, ranging from very positive to very negative. To codify more thoughtful and scientifically based statements, in recent years, researchers have become more than interested in martial arts. Next to an increased number of scientific meetings and publications with regard to martial arts, also a pregnant growth in the number of presentations on martial arts at sports scientific congresses has been detected.

Furthermore, a number of trends may be noticed regarding research on social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise. While earlier studies focused on a more general population, in more recent years, in that location has been a shift in attention to younger participants. There has as well been more accent in later research on the human relationship betwixt martial arts do and aggressive beliefs and more than Western martial arts take been investigated than before.

Information technology tin be argued that these trends are in line with a number of social developments, such every bit an increased popularity of martial arts amid socially vulnerable youth. Hence, several pedagogues and welfare workers have used martial arts in their work with this target group and apply information technology as an instrument to meliorate their social and personal evolution (e.1000., Fleisher et al., 1995; Ham, 2008; Nuchelmans, 2008; Theeboom et al., 2004).

The present review provides an overview of enquiry that has been conducted over the past 2 decades on social-psychological outcomes of martial arts involvement, with youth in particular. Past research has more often than not pointed in the management of the appearance of positive effects, going from a higher level of self-regulation and an increased psychological well-being, to a decreased violence level amongst its participants. Nevertheless, some contrasting images take been plant, since a few studies reported negative outcomes equally a outcome of martial arts involvement, such equally an increased antisocial behavior. In conclusion, it has non been able to provide overall conclusive evidence regarding the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise.

However, information technology remains difficult to determine if and to what extent the practice of a martial art can be deemed for the reported effects. The presumed effects cannot be attributed solely to mere sport participation, because other factors could have an influence as well. For example, the cause and effect relationship of martial arts practise likewise equally the cocky-selection bias remain disquisitional issues. It has been argued that it is ofttimes too difficult to make full general statements near the social-psychological outcomes of sports participation, without taking several influential factors into consideration, such as the blazon of guidance, the structural qualities of the sport, the characteristics of the participants and the social context (Coalter, 2007; Patriksson, 1995; Shields and Bredemeier, 1995). Withal, the nowadays review shows that but a few researchers accept considered 1 or more of these influential factors.

Based on this, some suggestion for future research will be proposed in the final part of this review. Regarding the structural qualities of the martial arts, it can be ended that some researchers have tried to take this into consideration by making a comparison between different martial arts styles. Such studies revealed the importance of taking the specific martial arts style being practiced into account. Also some attention has been paid to the type of guidance, by comparing traditional with modern training methods. In general, the old showed more positive furnishings than the latter. Nonetheless, in futurity inquiry it would exist relevant to expect more closely at the different teaching styles beingness used. For example, this tin be linked to a specific climate that is created by the teacher's beliefs, which in plow can have an impact on motivational responses in youth. Ames, 1992 argued that two motivational climates can be identified: a mastery climate, where cocky-referenced improvement and effort is focused, and a operation climate, where pupils are encouraged to perform better than others. To date, limited research has been conducted in which the motivational climate of martial arts practise has been taken into business relationship. Hence, in time to come research information technology might be relevant to expect at the motivational climate of different martial arts practises, betwixt different martial arts as well as within 1 martial fine art, but where unlike approaches take been used (traditional versus modernistic).

Next to the type of guidance and the structural qualities of the sport, the characteristics of the participants should as well be controlled when examining the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practice. As Wisse, 2007 and Anthonissen and Dortants, 2006 argued, martial artists with unlike characteristics can give different meanings to their martial art and can feel their martial arts practise in another style. Therefore, it is important to learn more about the differences of participants' characteristics. One of these differences can be linked to the personality traits of participants (east.g., level of self-confidence, aggressiveness). Furthermore, in the literature the characteristics of the participants are as well related to the goal orientations of the participants. To date, ii studies have examined whether achievement goal orientations vary as a function of the type of martial arts interest and arrived at different conclusions. Gernigon and Le Bars, 2000 stressed the compatibility of a competitive context and task orientation, whereas King and Williams, 1997 stressed the compatibility of traditional martial arts and task orientation. Consequently, future studies might take a closer look at the relationship between the characteristics of participants and the chosen martial fine art. For example, it could be interesting to determine to what extent accomplishment goal orientations of adolescents practicing a harder martial art (e.g., kicking-/Thai boxing) differ from those practicing a softer martial art (due east.one thousand., aikido) [Martial arts tin be classified as soft or hard. For example, aikido is considered every bit a soft martial art, considering the strength and the intention of an assail is used confronting the opponent, to neutralize him. While kick-/Thai boxing is considered as a hard martial art, because there is often more emphasize on parrying (or just direct blocking) an attack (which does not let to use the strength of the opponent)].

Finally, the social context of the participants has also to exist taken into consideration when investigating outcomes in sports participants. It has already been described that social class is one of the most of import factors influencing sports interest (Scheerder et al., 2005). Hence, it can be assumed that participants' socio-economical groundwork might likewise accept an influence on the type of martial arts interest.

In general, hereafter studies that tin can command for a number of of import influencing factors might be able to provide a better understanding of the true nature of the social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise for adolescents.

Biographies

Jikkemien Vertonghen

Employment

SPhD Pupil, Vrije Universiteit Brussel.

Marc Theeboom

Employment

Professor at the Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy and the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium.

Research interests

Pedagogical and policy-related aspects of youth sport in general and specific target groups.

East-post: eb.ca.buv@moobeeht.cram

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